Expansion into empire
The rise of the Inca empire was similar to that of others, characterized by military expansionism, endemic warfare, subjugation and rulers capable of both annexing vast new territories and defending existing lands and resources. Although the historical record is unreliable, with different kin groups passing down narratives that paint themselves in a favourable or glorious light, it is possible to piece together a probable timeline of the Inca rise to power.
Pachakuti's rise to power
Late in the reign of Wiraqocha Inca, the Chanka people assembled a substantial army to execute a three-pronged attack on the south of Cuzco, the altiplano, and Cuzco itself. Supposedly motivated by Wiraqocha naming himself after the Creator God, the Chanka successfully forced Wiraqocha to flee to a fortified refuge, along with his heir designate Inka Urqon and most of the aristocracy. The intrepid prince Inka Yupanki rejected the idea of retreat, however, and rallied local lords to hold their home against the advancing Chanka.
The beginning of Inka Yupanki's many military successes was this first victory against the Chanka. With Cuzco safe, Inka Yupanki took the prisoners and plunder to his father so that Wiraqocha could trample on them in the customary gesture of triumph. However, Wiraqocha was concerned about Inka Yupanki's sudden rise to power, and orchestrated the ceremony so his other son Inka Urqon was treated as if he were already enthroned. Defiant, Inka Yupanki refused to let his hard won victory be defiled and left Cuzco, foiling an ambush by his father's men along the way. Soon the Chanka attacked the Inca capital again, and were again repelled under Inka Yupanki's leadership.
This was to be the end of the older ruler's effective reign, and Inka Yupanki continued to build his power base by expanding and organizing the Inca realm as de facto leader, with twenty years alone spent rebuilding Cuzco. After the new capital had been completed, the court finally persuaded Wiraqocha to return from his fortified estate, Caquia Xaquixaguana, and officially name Inka Yupanki as king. Wiraqocha named his son Pachacuti Ynga Yupangui Capac Yndichuri, meaning "change of time, King Yupanque, son of the Sun". However, the new monarch was still dissatisfied, and proving his ruthlessness, forced his father to drink chica from a filthy jar while deriding him as a woman. In the end the son accepted his father's apologies and invited the ex-monarch to participate in Cuzco's regular festivities, which he continued to do until his death ten years later.
Major expansions
Pachakuti's rule was a continuous struggle to expand the fledgling empire's borders, pushing further and further afield. The earliest targets were in the rich lands of the altiplano. The Lake Titicaca basin was an area where the Inca established an early presence, with records telling of how Pachakuti himself defeated the Qolla tribe there, installing an Inca garrison in one of their forts and taking their leader back to Cuzco to be publically beheaded.
Many chroniclers reported that early campaigns into central Peru to bring the agricultural heartland under Inca control engaged Cuzco with unintended and dangerous foes. One crisis typical of the periodic political animosities of the time occurred after a joint Inca-Chanka campaign to the north of the country broke down, with the Inca apparently embarassed by the Chanka' superior valour in taking a fort. Managing to defeat the Chimu at Cajamarca, the Inca returned to Cuzco with booty, but on their return Pachakuti executed the generals of the army. Although he used the Chanka desertion as a pretext, his motivation is sometimes conceived as fear that the triumphant soldiers would turn on him, as he had used his stature to unseat his father. The remaining commanders organized another northern campaign just to get away from Pachakuti's "awful presence".
Fairly early during the expansion, the Inca pushed into Ecuador, conducting a grand sweep of the north Andes. Requiring several campaigns to secure Inca dominion, with many operations resulting in decisive defeat for the Inca, control of many areas bordering the several valleys was still incomplete in 1532. The initial campaign reached the southern Quito basin, with successive operations to secure the Ecuadorian coast. During one of these operations, one of the more famous events of Inca history occurred. Thupa Inka Yupanki, Pachakuti's son and general for many of the Inca campaigns, made a sea voyage to the Pacific Islands of Anachumbi and Ninachumbi, with 20,000 soldiers on balsa rafts.
Another arduous campaign by the Incas was that to bring the coastal areas of Peru from Nazca to Mala under imperial control. Taking many years, the Inca met resolute resistance from the Lunahuana and Mara peoples of the Canete valley. The Inca armies alternated contingents of 30,000 soldiers between the coast and highlands, because the coastal area was so unhealthy for the people of the sierra. Thupa Inka Yupanki mounted gruelling campaigns from the settlement of Inkawasi, which was built specifically to support and resupply the troops in their long-term wars against the local tribes. Called the "New Cuzco", Inkawasi had streets and districts named after the imperial capital.
Late in Pachakuti's reign, the Inca made several ventures into the Bolivian and Peruvian jungles and plains to the east. Ill-suited to jungle warfare, the Incan highland armies lost many men initially to the guerilla tactics of the local tribes. Many men also perished from hunger and disease. Thupa Inka Yupanki led at least two expeditions, one as Pachakuti's general then later as emperor after his father's death. During later expeditions into the jungle, the Incas' opponents made a fatal tactical error, massing their forces for a pitched battle instead of harassing them with the guerilla tactics used previously. Despite achieving military success, however, Thupa Inka Yupanki found little of value in the area and turned back to Cuzco.
In addition to the challenges of expanding the territory of the empire, the Inca were periodically threatened by rebellions in the altiplano. In one major uprising by the Qolla and Lupaqa tribes, Thupa Inka Yupanki had to return from one of the jungle campaigns to lead a punitive force and put down the rebellion. To maintain order in Chinchaysuyu, the Inca reportedly detached 20,000 men from Antisuyu and 20,000 Canas and Canches, Aymara speaking peoples who sided with the Inca during the rebellion. 10,000 were allocated to Cuntisuyu, and Thupa Inka Yupanki supposedly took 100,000 soldiers from Chinchaysuyu with a large personal guard from Cuzco to put down the rebellion. Probably a significant exaggeration, the Inca effort to reassert dominion in the altiplano nonetheless took many years of campaigning and doubtless many men died to restore order in the empire. The Inca took memorable retribution on the defeated altiplano rebel lords, flaying them, impaling their heads on poles and fashioning their skins into drums.
Once the Inca armies had secured the Titicaca basin, they pressed south through the altiplano into northwest Argentina and Chile. Beginning with the conquest of the Guasco and Coquimbo, the Inca then engaged the Chiriguanos and Zuries, east of the Andes, along the southeastern frontier. Finding the rough eastern terrain difficult, the army doubled back to the high country and crossed over to Chile in pursuit of gold and mineral wealth at Porco, Tarapaca and Carabaya. Pressing further south, the Inca army reached as far as the Santiago region. However at this point the advance was halted, with the records telling of either Thupa Inka Yupanki's desire to return to Cuzco or resistance from the allied Mapuche and Araucanian forces being the reason.
After settling garrisons in Chile, Thupa Inka Yupanki's forces set out to return to Cuzco. Divided into four, the Inca armies took the coastal plain of Arequipa, the central highlands of the Carangas and Aullagas, and the Chicha lands to the east. The fourth contingent was led by Thupa Inka Yupanki, taking an eastern route where they suffered great losses crossing the desert and battling local tribes. Before arriving in Chucuito, Thupa Inka Yupanki's soldiers established dominion in a province, home to the Charcas, which his father had reportedly conquered previously. En route, he also founded the tampu of Paria, above Cochabamba, where he exacted great quantities of gold in tribute from the residents of Chuquiabo (modern day La Paz). During the eastern campaign, the Inca army also passed through the modern province of Santa Cruz, establishing fortified settlements at Pocona, Samaipata and Cuzcotuiro.
Pachakuti died during one of Thupa Inka Yupanki's campaigns in the south Andes, which was to be one of the warrior-prince's last. Much of the empire also rebelled during the time of the southern conquests, and the Inca had to return north to resecure the rebellious heartlands, with the Chachapoyas peoples being particularly defiant. In the end, Wayna Qhapaq, Thupa Inka Yupanki's heir, led the Inca effort to restore order and pacify the rebels, leading to a period of consolidation within the empire.
Next - The arrival of the Spanish
